02.01 People Groups

02.01.19 School of Hillel

Bill Heinrich  -  Jan 19, 2016  -  Comments Off on 02.01.19 School of Hillel

02.01.19 School of Hillel. Rabbi Hillel, a/k/a Hillel the Elder, was one of the most important religious leaders in Israel during the time of Roman occupation. He was born in Babylon around 50 B.C., although a few sources date his birth as early as 110 B.C., and he died in A.D. 10. Because Isaiah said that the law should proceed forth from Jerusalem (Isa. 2:3), Jerusalem became the center of religious training. Hillel came to study in Jerusalem at the famous schools of Abtalion and Schemaiah.[1]  About three decades before the birth of Jesus, he rose from the lowest ranks among the rabbis and became President of the Sanhedrin.

Hillel is at times romantically compared to Moses, as both supposedly lived to an age of 120. Hillel lived in Babylon for forty years, then studied for forty years, and in the last forty years he was a leader to his people. Those comments of are obviously somewhat fanciful, but reflect the high respect later generations had for him.  He was also from the line of David, of Shephatiah, the son of Abital – a genealogical record that added to his credentials.[2] There is an excellent possibility that he and/or his students were in the temple when Jesus was there at the age of 12.

Hillel established an academy, which was known for its compassion toward fellow Jews and moral Gentiles. His school of biblical interpretation[3] held to the orthodox form of Judaism, but was known for its kindness, gentleness, and influence during the reign of Herod the Great (37 – 4 B.C.) and the childhood days of Jesus.  He was a strict rabbi with a strong leaning to charity and mercy along with some Hellenistic or liberal ideas of the time. In fact, some of his ideas and ways of teaching the core values of the Torah were nearly identical to those of Jesus.[4] Scholars have often said that Jesus agreed much more with the teachings of Rabbi Hillel than with the opposing Rabbi Shammai.[5]

Since his teachings were often similar to those of Jesus, some scholars have suggested he was a significant element of “the fullness of time” phrase of Galatians 4:4b, in that he brought many people in line with what Jesus would be teaching.  After the destruction of the temple, his followers became the dominant influence in Jewish lives.  Leaders of both the Schools of Hillel and Shammai claimed to have heard a “voice from heaven,” even though on occasion they had strong contrasting interpretations of Scripture. It is difficult to classify either one as liberal or conservative. However, Hillel had a reputation for being kind and gentle while Shammai was impatient and abrasive.[6] (See last paragraph of 02.01.19 “School of Shammai” below.)  One of the lasting contributions of Hillel was his seven rules of biblical interpretation.[7]   Most Jewish scholars agree, however, these did not all originate with him, but he popularized them. See Appendix 30 for the complete listing.

Finally, Hillel’s family may have had more influence in biblical history than is commonly understood. Some scholars believe that it was his son Simeon who served in the temple and dedicated Jesus (Lk. 2:25-26).[8] The grandson of Hillel, Gamaliel, trained a student by the name of Saul, who became the famous Apostle Paul.[9]

 

[1]. Geikie, The Life and Works of Christ. 1:275.

 

[2]. Babylonian Talmud, Juchas. 19.2; Lightfoot, A Commentary on the New Testament from the Talmud and Hebraica. 3:35.

 

[3]. See Rabbi Hillel’s “Seven Guidelines or Rules of Interpretation” in Appendix 30.

[4]. Moseley, Yeshua: A Guide to the Real Jesus and the Original Church. 111.

 

[5]. Pixner, With Jesus through Galilee. 32.

 

[6]. Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah. 91; Babylonian Talmud, Shabbath 31a.

 

[7]. There are multiple sources that explain Hillel’s Rules of Interpretation.  His seven rules were later expanded into thirteen by Rabbi Ishmael.  See Fischer, The Gospels in Their Jewish Context. (Lecture on CD/MP3). Week 11, Session 1.

 

[8]. See Lightfoot, A Commentary on the New Testament from the Talmud and Hebraica. 2:31.

 

[9]. Falk, Jesus the Pharisee. 48.

 



02.01.20 School of Shammai

Bill Heinrich  -  Jan 19, 2016  -  Comments Off on 02.01.20 School of Shammai

02.01.20 School of Shammai. Rabbi Shammai (c. 50 B.C. – A.D. 30) was a leading Jewish scholar during the time of Herod the Great and Jesus. He was the embodiment of the narrow-minded legalistic Pharisaic spirit.[1] His school of biblical interpretation became popular about 30 B.C. and he took control of the Sanhedrin ten years later when he was most powerful.[2] Shammai, an aggressive man with a rough personality, established an academy to promote his theology. Students of Shammai, along with the leading Pharisees,[3] the Sadducees and Herodians, were the most aggressive challengers to Jesus.[4]

Essentially, this school introduced some new changes in the way the Mosaic Law was applied to the common people. The Jerusalem Talmud reports that one member of this group practiced polygamy, a severe change from the norm in first century Judaism.[5]  The rabbis of this school placed restrictive rules upon the people (“binding”), which were released by the rabbis of Hillel (“loosening”). When Jesus made harsh statements toward the Pharisees, it was generally to the School of Shammai. Hence, there was not only conflict between the Pharisees and Sadducees, but also between these two theological centers within the Pharisee sect.[6]  In A.D. 70 when the temple was destroyed, the School of Shammai was also destroyed along with the Sadducees.[7]

Comparing the differences of Hillel and Shammai can be challenging for modern students because they do not fit well in the “conservative vs. liberal” mold. Shammai and his followers were stricter in their interpretation of the Mosaic Law, Jewish traditions, and in their judicial decisions. Hillel and his school were more merciful, kinder, and forgiving in their handling of the law.  An example is as follows:

If someone stole a beam and built it into a house—

The School of Shammai says, “Let him tear down the whole house and return the beam to its owner.”

And the School of Hillel says, “The owner has a claim only for the value of the beam alone, on account of the good order of those who repent.”

Babylonian Talmud, Gittin 18b[8]

 

The entire conflict between the two schools of theology, Hillel and Shammai, became so intense that it caused division and conflict in the Jewish judicial system. Notice the following warning.

Abbaye said, “The caution against splintering into deviant groups applies only in the case of two courts of law, such as one deciding according to the views of Beit (meaning House of) Shammai and one according to the views of Beit Hillel, but two courts of law in separate cities would not be subject to this limitation.”  Rava challenged this, “But were not the Shammaites and the Hillelites like two courts of law [and they differed freely from each other in the same locale]?”  Said Rava, “The caution applies in the case of one court in the same city, with half the judges deciding according to the Beit Shammai and the other half according to the Beit Hillel.”

Babylonian Talmud, Yebamoth 14a[9]  

 

Furthermore, the Mishnah has numerous situations where the application of the Mosaic Law or Oral Law by these opposing schools led to intense arguments. There can be no question that some, if not all, of the legalistic questions presented to Jesus were from the Shammaite branch of the Pharisees.

In the case of a violation, the rabbis of Shammai demanded physical punishment whereas the Pharisaic Hillelites offered a milder punishment that was often in the form of a monetary fine.[10] Those who confronted Jesus about healing on the Sabbath were most likely to be followers of Shammai, rather than Hillel. The School of Shammai had the following objections concerning so-called sinners, Gentiles, and the poor:

  1. They were not permitted to have a continuous relationship, unless absolutely necessary, with a “sinner.”
  1. They were not to eat any food that was not tithed, especially if it came from a “sinner.” That meant a Pharisee could not enjoy a dinner[11] in the home of a “sinner.”
  1. They were not permitted to invite a “sinner” to their home.
  1. The best relationship a Pharisee could have with a “sinner” was none.
  1. The leading Pharisees believed that wealth was the result of Divine favor and, therefore, contact with poor people should be avoided.
  1. No animal could be sacrificed in the temple if the owner had taken it from non-Jewish land or it crossed heathen territory.

Clearly, the followers of Shammai would not be the judges anyone would have to be accountable to. If there were any Pharisees before Pilate demanding the crucifixion of Jesus, it would have been those of this school.

 

02.01.20 (3)

 

[1]. Geikie, The Life and Works of Christ. 1:276.

 

[2]. Fischer, The Gospels in Their Jewish Context. (Lecture on CD/MP3). Week 5, Session 2.

 

[3]. Only the leading Pharisees, but by no means, all the Pharisees opposed Jesus.

 

[4]. New International Version Study Bible note on Leviticus 24:20.

[5]. Falk, Jesus the Pharisee. 54. Harvey Falk reports that a Rabbi Eliezer was married, and in his later years he also married his niece; but his first wife, whom he never divorced, outlived him.  There is a well documented case of first century polygamy in the religious establishment of the Pharisees, but it was not a common practice. See the Jerusalem Talmud, Yevamot 13.2 and Sanhedrin 68a.

 

[6]. Farrar, Life of Christ. 307.

 

[7]. http://www.tyndale.cam.ac.uk/Tyndale/staff/Instone-Brewer/prepub/Sanhedrin%2043a%20censored.pdf. Retrieved May 26, 2013.

 

[8] Cited by Neusner, The Talmud of Babylonia: An American Translation. Vol XVIIIB: Gittin. 93.

 

[9]. Cited by Boker, The Talmud: Selected Writings. 134-35; Bracketed insert by Boker; Definition in parenthesis mine.

 

[10]. Geikie, The Life and Words of Christ. 2:106.

 

[11]. The evening meal was the “chief” meal of the day, usually held in the evening. It was the primary meal during the feasts, such as the Passover meal and marriage feast.

 



02.01.21 Scribes

Bill Heinrich  -  Jan 19, 2016  -  Comments Off on 02.01.21 Scribes

02.01.21 Scribes. In the early years of the Old Testament era, scribes were little more than secretaries who functioned as copy writers and performed dictations.[1] But by the beginning of the Inter-Testamental Period, they were generally considered to be scholars of the Mosaic Law (Ezra 7:6; Neh. 8:1), who had excellent writing skills, and by the first century they also functioned as lawyers (Gk. nomodidaskalos), teachers of the Law, accountants, secretaries, journalists, historians, librarians, and teachers.[2] It is believed that most were clerks in a small middle-class society, but some rose to wealthy and powerful prominence.[3] The skill of writing became a monopoly for some families which insured wealth for future generations.[4]

Most people were closely aligned to the Pharisees because this religious group controlled the local synagogues, and the people felt comfortable because they had studied the Written and Oral Laws more than any other religious sect.[5]  Because Pharisees were usually synonymous with the teachers of the Law,[6] it is at times difficult to distinguish them from the scribes[7] although the scribes generally read Scripture in the synagogue. Not all scribes were Pharisees, but all the Pharisees who were members of the Sanhedrin were also scribes (cf. Mt. 23:7-8).[8] Whenever Jesus criticized them,[9] He did so for the following reasons:

  1. They imposed restrictive laws on people which they avoided themselves.
  1. They built beautiful monument tombs for the prophets who were sent by God, but whom they killed.
  1. They kept knowledge of God’s Word essentially for themselves, and made themselves judge and jury of biblical interpretation.
  1. They were incredibly prideful in dress, in greetings, and in public places such as the market and synagogue. The leading Pharisees were so self-righteous, that they often bathed after being in public with the common people.

A scribe was called in Hebrew a talmid, meaning a learned one, or the educated one, but he was also known as a chakham, meaning wise man because he studied all the laws and knew how to apply them to daily life.[10] Scribes were literary professionals who were available for the purpose of writing legal contracts. There were various divisions of scribes.  For example, some scribes functioned as royal secretaries (2 Sam. 8:17) and others were military scribes (Jer. 37:15). It appears that the art of writing was a craft controlled by selected families. The Kenites had families of scribes living at Jabez (1 Chron. 2:55) who appear to have kept a monopoly on their craft.  However, in Jerusalem, scribal schools trained priests and Levites who in turn, trained the people of the Law. Ezra could not have taught the people the Law of Moses if there were no scribal schools in Babylon. Thankfulness should be granted to the Levitical scribes who copied the books of the Old Testament (Deut. 17:18; Jer. 8:8). They wrote various documents that pertained to the maintenance of the temple facility (2 Kg. 12:10; 2 Chron. 34:13).[11]

The famous leader, Ezra, for whom an Old Testament book is named, created this separate body known as scribes or the sopherim.  They copied Scriptures for all occasions, carefully counting every letter to insure accurate transmission of the Sacred Word.[12]  By the first century they became known as lawyers[13] and doctors of the law.[14]  Since nearly every aspect of Jewish life was controlled by religious law, scribes were theological lawyers who were trained in the application of the Torah and the Oral Law. They were often given the honored position of reading the Scriptures in the synagogues and were authoritative consultants who settled disputes.[15]  

Scribes existed in all major religious sects, but most belonged to the Pharisees.[16]  Twice some are referred to as the “scribes of the Pharisees” (Mk. 2:16; Acts 23:9), suggesting that there were scribes of other religious groups. However, as a group, they were technically a trade guild and not a separate religious sect or party.[17] They are best remembered for being extremely detail-oriented concerning religious law, masters of “hair-splitting details” and theological debates. This explains why they were in constant discussions with Jesus, which ultimately led to their humiliation before their favorite audiences.[18] 

 

[1]. 1 Chron. 2:55; 26:6; 27:32; 2 Chron. 34:13; Ezra 4:8-9, 17, 23; Ps. 45:1; Jer. 8:8; Nah. 3:17.

 

[2]. Hillyer, “Scribe, Writing.” 3:477-78.

 

[3]. Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament. 417-18.

 

[4]. Hillyer, “Scribe, Writing.” 3:477-79.

 

[5]. Cited from Moseley, Yeshua: A Guide to the Real Jesus and the Original Church. 92.

 

[6]. Mt. 3:7; 15:1; Mk. 2: 16, 24; Lk. 11:38.

 

[7]. Jeremias, Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus. 59.  

 

[8]. Jeremias, Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus. 236. Being a scribe was a family occupation, handed down from one generation to another. For a list of families of scribes, see I Chronicles 2:55, and for a “company of scribes,” see 1 Maccabees 7:12.  

 

[9]. Other Jewish writers also criticized the leading Pharisees as found in 1 Enoch 102:9-10; Testament of Moses 7:3; Tosefta, Menahot 13:22. See also  Jeremias, Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus. 259, n 42.    

 

[10]. Lang, Know the Words of Jesus. 173.

 

[11]. See also Josephus, Antiquities 12.3.3; cf. 11.5.1.

 

[12]. Freeman, The New Manners and Customs of the Bible. 420.

 

[13]. Mt. 22:35; Lk. 7:30; 11:45; 14:3.

 

[14]. Lk. 2:46; 5:17; Acts 5:34; Freeman, The New Manners and Customs of the Bible. 420-21; Guignebert, The Jewish World in the Time of Jesus. 71.

 

[15]. Freeman, The New Manners and Customs.” 420.

[16]. Metzger, B. New Testament. 48-49.

 

[17]. Hagner, “Scribes.” 4:360-61; Guignebert, The Jewish World in the Time of Jesus. 71.

[18]. Wilson, False Trials of Jesus. 18.

 



02.01.22 Sicarii

Bill Heinrich  -  Jan 19, 2016  -  Comments Off on 02.01.22 Sicarii

02.01.22 Sicarii. (See also Zealots 02.01.23). This group of freedom fighters was known as the “Sicarii” to the Romans and as the “Zealots” to the Jewish people. Some scholars say that the names are interchangeable, but are listed as two separate groups because other scholars say that the Zealots were a subgroup within the Sicarii organization. Nonetheless, they were dedicated to eliminating Hellenized Jews, overthrowing the Roman Empire to gain independence for Israel, as well as reestablishing the Torah and the orthodox faith in Judaism.

Josephus identified them as a nationalistic group that was known for various terroristic murderous activities.[1] For example, they would walk in a crowded market, surround their victim who was unaware of his situation and, on a given secret signal, pull out short thin daggers and assassinate the victim. In fact, the name Sicarii is the Latin word meaning dagger or short sword.[2] The group would then walk away as if nothing had happened leaving the victim dead on the street. They utterly terrorized Jerusalem.[3]  Luke mentioned a false messiah who led four thousand Sicarii terrorists in a revolt that failed (Acts 21:38).  The last of these hyper-Zealots was destroyed in A.D. 73 with the fall of Masada.[4]

[1]. Josephus, Wars 4.9; Antiquities 20.8.6.

 

[2]. Bruce, New Testament History. 93.

 

[3]. Josephus, Wars 2.13.3.

 

[4]. House, Chronological and Background Charts of the New Testament. 75.

 



02.01.23 Zealots

Bill Heinrich  -  Jan 19, 2016  -  Comments Off on 02.01.23 Zealots

02.01.23 Zealots. (See also 02.01.22 Sicarii.) The Zealots were not only freedom fighters, but they were extremely hostile to the Romans, Herodians, and the wealthy aristocratic Jews of Jerusalem – namely the Sadducees.[1] Their name was taken from 1 Kings 19:10, “I have been very zealous for the Lord God Almighty.”[2] They called themselves by the Hebrew term Ganna’im or Aramaic Qan anayya, which in Greek is Zelotai.[3] Obviously the English word is derived from the latter. Their rallying cry was “No king for Israel but God.” They believed it was a sin to pay taxes to a pagan overlord and were determined to fight for their freedom.

While these first century terrorists first became organized and fought against Herod the Great in the years 40-37 B.C., they did not become a political movement until Jesus was about eight or ten years old.  By then the name Zealot identified those who participated in the uprising of A.D. 6 led by Judas of Gamala, the son of Saripheus and Mattathias. This Judas (also known as Judas the Galilean in Acts 5:37) said that Jews were a chosen people of God and, therefore, had no obligation to pay taxes to the Roman government. This is the background of Matthew 22:17 when Jesus was asked, “Is it right to pay taxes to Caesar or not?” While the revolt failed, a Pharisee by the name of Zadok joined Judas and together they formed a loosely knit religious political party which Josephus called the “fourth philosophy.”[4]  They were trained to fight to their death and to recognize no messiah except a messiah of the sword.[5]  From the time the Romans entered the land in 63 B.C. until the destruction of the temple in A.D. 70, there were thirteen revolts[6] and sixty claimants to the title of messiah.[7] Some historians say there were three major revolts that overshadowed dozens of smaller ones. Only one of the Zealots, Menahem ben Hezekiah, claimed to be a descendant of David.[8] However, the greatest of these revolts became known as the “First Revolt” (A.D. 66), which led to the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple.

They originated in the Galilee region while Herod the Great was governor there – before he became king of the entire Jewish region, but became better organized under Judas in A.D. 6.  Josephus said[9] they were the most active freedom-fighting party at the time, convinced that God would help them only if they helped themselves.[10] Their concept of a messiah was one who would lead them to military victory over Roman oppression. The concept of separation of “church and State,” or as would have been said at that time, the separation of synagogue and state, did not exist at that time. Religious faith was the primary motivation behind political movements; as it is with radical Islamic terrorists today. The center of the Jewish resistance movement was in the city of Gamala, located in the mountains east of Galilee, where in A.D. 66 more than five thousand Zealots chose to commit suicide rather than die by the Roman sword.[11]  From this group came a disciple of Jesus by the name of Simon who was referred to later as “Simon the Zealot,” to differentiate him from Simon Peter.[12]

The violent activities of the Sicarii / Zealots initiated the First Revolt.[13] The last of these freedom fighters died at Masada in A.D. 73, but their ideals and dreams of the restoration of a political dynasty equal to that of King David continued.  Six decades later the Jews were at war again, in what has become known as the “Second Revolt” (A.D. 132-135). This revolt is also known as the Simon bar Kokhba Revolt and resulted in the dispersion of all Jews and Christians from Jerusalem by the command of the Roman General Hadrian.

 

[1]. Bruce, New Testament History. 94-95.

 

[2]. Pixner, With Jesus in Jerusalem. 126.

 

[3]. Bruce, New Testament History. 88.

[4]. Josephus, Antiquities 18.1.6 and 20.8.10.

 

[5]. Farrar, The Life of Christ. 442.

 

[6]. See Appendix 25 for a listing of false prophets who had messianic expectations and for a partial listing of revolts and social disturbances from 63 B.C. to A.D. 70.

 

[7]. Geikie, The Life and Works of Christ. 2:114.

 

[8]. Jerusalem Talmud, Berakhoth 2.4, 5a.18. Menahem ben Hezekiah was a major leader in the revolt of A.D. 66 (Josephus, Wars 2.17.8). For more than a hundred years the Hezekiah family was involved in various revolts, and mutinies.  This has given credibility to some that they were of royal lineage as they claimed.

 

[9]. Josephus, Antiquities 18.1.6 (23-25).

 

[10]. Golub, In the Days. 274.

 

[11]. Pixner, With Jesus in Jerusalem. 126.

 

[12]. Pixner, With Jesus in Jerusalem. 126.

 

[13]. For more information on the Zealot movement, see Josephus, Wars 2.4.1 and 4.4.1.

 



02.01.03

Mike Kleinhans  -  Dec 08, 2015  -  Comments Off on 02.01.03

Diaspora. The term refers to Jews who were dispersed from their Holy Land, either forcefully or by free choice.[1] So many Jews lived “abroad” that by the end of the Inter-Testamental Period there were two Diasporas. The “Western Diaspora,” located in the area from Tarsus and Ephesus in modern Turkey to modern France, was dominated by the Hellenistic culture. The “Eastern Diaspora,” located in a region encompassed by eastern Turkey, Egypt, and Babylon, was dominated by rabbinic law and lore. Both cultural groups had a tendency to confront each other, especially when they met during the festivals in Jerusalem.



02.01.02

Mike Kleinhans  -  Dec 08, 2015  -  Comments Off on 02.01.02

Arabs (see Idumeans)



02.01.01

Mike Kleinhans  -  Dec 08, 2015  -  Comments Off on 02.01.01

Introduction. The Holy Land in the first century consisted of several Jewish subgroups along with a variety of Gentile ethnic groups. The following definitions clarify people groups discussed in this e-book. They represent religious sects, cultural and political bodies that conflicted with each other and shaped the ministry environment of Jesus. Not all are mentioned in the gospels, but nonetheless, their influence was present, and sometimes quite powerful.



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