Unit 02 Cultural Background Studies

02.01.18 Sanhedrin

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02.01.18 Sanhedrin The Greek word Sanhedrin is a combination of syn, meaning together and hedra, meaning seats.[1] The court consisted of the following entities:[2]

  1. 1 President and high priest who was Caiaphas during the ministry of Jesus.
  2. 24 chief priests who were Sadducees
  3. 24 elders who were Pharisees
  4. 22 scribes who were Pharisees

The Sanhedrin was the legislative and judicial body / Supreme Court of the Jewish nation. This is evident in Matthew 26:65-66 and 27:1-2.  It was the policy of the Romans to permit captured people groups to have limited self-government. However, when there was a new aspiring messiah or rabbi, as was common at this time, the Sanhedrin investigated the speaker in two stages.

  1. The first was an observation stage when representatives went to the community where the self-proclaimed rabbi was teaching. Observers never asked questions or objections. Then they returned to the temple and reported what they heard and saw.
  1. The second stage was one of interrogation where questions were asked and objections were raised. Their motive was to find a basis to either accept or reject the speaker and his message.

That is why in the early days of the ministry of Jesus, agents for the high court were sometimes present but said nothing.  Later in His ministry they discussed various issues with Jesus.

 

[1]. Parry, The Complete Idiot’s Guide to the Talmud. 36.

 

[2]. Fruchtenbaum, The Jewish Foundation of the Life of Messiah: Instructor’s Manual. Class 24, page 6.

 



02.01.19 School of Hillel

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02.01.19 School of Hillel. Rabbi Hillel, a/k/a Hillel the Elder, was one of the most important religious leaders in Israel during the time of Roman occupation. He was born in Babylon around 50 B.C., although a few sources date his birth as early as 110 B.C., and he died in A.D. 10. Because Isaiah said that the law should proceed forth from Jerusalem (Isa. 2:3), Jerusalem became the center of religious training. Hillel came to study in Jerusalem at the famous schools of Abtalion and Schemaiah.[1]  About three decades before the birth of Jesus, he rose from the lowest ranks among the rabbis and became President of the Sanhedrin.

Hillel is at times romantically compared to Moses, as both supposedly lived to an age of 120. Hillel lived in Babylon for forty years, then studied for forty years, and in the last forty years he was a leader to his people. Those comments of are obviously somewhat fanciful, but reflect the high respect later generations had for him.  He was also from the line of David, of Shephatiah, the son of Abital – a genealogical record that added to his credentials.[2] There is an excellent possibility that he and/or his students were in the temple when Jesus was there at the age of 12.

Hillel established an academy, which was known for its compassion toward fellow Jews and moral Gentiles. His school of biblical interpretation[3] held to the orthodox form of Judaism, but was known for its kindness, gentleness, and influence during the reign of Herod the Great (37 – 4 B.C.) and the childhood days of Jesus.  He was a strict rabbi with a strong leaning to charity and mercy along with some Hellenistic or liberal ideas of the time. In fact, some of his ideas and ways of teaching the core values of the Torah were nearly identical to those of Jesus.[4] Scholars have often said that Jesus agreed much more with the teachings of Rabbi Hillel than with the opposing Rabbi Shammai.[5]

Since his teachings were often similar to those of Jesus, some scholars have suggested he was a significant element of “the fullness of time” phrase of Galatians 4:4b, in that he brought many people in line with what Jesus would be teaching.  After the destruction of the temple, his followers became the dominant influence in Jewish lives.  Leaders of both the Schools of Hillel and Shammai claimed to have heard a “voice from heaven,” even though on occasion they had strong contrasting interpretations of Scripture. It is difficult to classify either one as liberal or conservative. However, Hillel had a reputation for being kind and gentle while Shammai was impatient and abrasive.[6] (See last paragraph of 02.01.19 “School of Shammai” below.)  One of the lasting contributions of Hillel was his seven rules of biblical interpretation.[7]   Most Jewish scholars agree, however, these did not all originate with him, but he popularized them. See Appendix 30 for the complete listing.

Finally, Hillel’s family may have had more influence in biblical history than is commonly understood. Some scholars believe that it was his son Simeon who served in the temple and dedicated Jesus (Lk. 2:25-26).[8] The grandson of Hillel, Gamaliel, trained a student by the name of Saul, who became the famous Apostle Paul.[9]

 

[1]. Geikie, The Life and Works of Christ. 1:275.

 

[2]. Babylonian Talmud, Juchas. 19.2; Lightfoot, A Commentary on the New Testament from the Talmud and Hebraica. 3:35.

 

[3]. See Rabbi Hillel’s “Seven Guidelines or Rules of Interpretation” in Appendix 30.

[4]. Moseley, Yeshua: A Guide to the Real Jesus and the Original Church. 111.

 

[5]. Pixner, With Jesus through Galilee. 32.

 

[6]. Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah. 91; Babylonian Talmud, Shabbath 31a.

 

[7]. There are multiple sources that explain Hillel’s Rules of Interpretation.  His seven rules were later expanded into thirteen by Rabbi Ishmael.  See Fischer, The Gospels in Their Jewish Context. (Lecture on CD/MP3). Week 11, Session 1.

 

[8]. See Lightfoot, A Commentary on the New Testament from the Talmud and Hebraica. 2:31.

 

[9]. Falk, Jesus the Pharisee. 48.

 



02.01.20 School of Shammai

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02.01.20 School of Shammai. Rabbi Shammai (c. 50 B.C. – A.D. 30) was a leading Jewish scholar during the time of Herod the Great and Jesus. He was the embodiment of the narrow-minded legalistic Pharisaic spirit.[1] His school of biblical interpretation became popular about 30 B.C. and he took control of the Sanhedrin ten years later when he was most powerful.[2] Shammai, an aggressive man with a rough personality, established an academy to promote his theology. Students of Shammai, along with the leading Pharisees,[3] the Sadducees and Herodians, were the most aggressive challengers to Jesus.[4]

Essentially, this school introduced some new changes in the way the Mosaic Law was applied to the common people. The Jerusalem Talmud reports that one member of this group practiced polygamy, a severe change from the norm in first century Judaism.[5]  The rabbis of this school placed restrictive rules upon the people (“binding”), which were released by the rabbis of Hillel (“loosening”). When Jesus made harsh statements toward the Pharisees, it was generally to the School of Shammai. Hence, there was not only conflict between the Pharisees and Sadducees, but also between these two theological centers within the Pharisee sect.[6]  In A.D. 70 when the temple was destroyed, the School of Shammai was also destroyed along with the Sadducees.[7]

Comparing the differences of Hillel and Shammai can be challenging for modern students because they do not fit well in the “conservative vs. liberal” mold. Shammai and his followers were stricter in their interpretation of the Mosaic Law, Jewish traditions, and in their judicial decisions. Hillel and his school were more merciful, kinder, and forgiving in their handling of the law.  An example is as follows:

If someone stole a beam and built it into a house—

The School of Shammai says, “Let him tear down the whole house and return the beam to its owner.”

And the School of Hillel says, “The owner has a claim only for the value of the beam alone, on account of the good order of those who repent.”

Babylonian Talmud, Gittin 18b[8]

 

The entire conflict between the two schools of theology, Hillel and Shammai, became so intense that it caused division and conflict in the Jewish judicial system. Notice the following warning.

Abbaye said, “The caution against splintering into deviant groups applies only in the case of two courts of law, such as one deciding according to the views of Beit (meaning House of) Shammai and one according to the views of Beit Hillel, but two courts of law in separate cities would not be subject to this limitation.”  Rava challenged this, “But were not the Shammaites and the Hillelites like two courts of law [and they differed freely from each other in the same locale]?”  Said Rava, “The caution applies in the case of one court in the same city, with half the judges deciding according to the Beit Shammai and the other half according to the Beit Hillel.”

Babylonian Talmud, Yebamoth 14a[9]  

 

Furthermore, the Mishnah has numerous situations where the application of the Mosaic Law or Oral Law by these opposing schools led to intense arguments. There can be no question that some, if not all, of the legalistic questions presented to Jesus were from the Shammaite branch of the Pharisees.

In the case of a violation, the rabbis of Shammai demanded physical punishment whereas the Pharisaic Hillelites offered a milder punishment that was often in the form of a monetary fine.[10] Those who confronted Jesus about healing on the Sabbath were most likely to be followers of Shammai, rather than Hillel. The School of Shammai had the following objections concerning so-called sinners, Gentiles, and the poor:

  1. They were not permitted to have a continuous relationship, unless absolutely necessary, with a “sinner.”
  1. They were not to eat any food that was not tithed, especially if it came from a “sinner.” That meant a Pharisee could not enjoy a dinner[11] in the home of a “sinner.”
  1. They were not permitted to invite a “sinner” to their home.
  1. The best relationship a Pharisee could have with a “sinner” was none.
  1. The leading Pharisees believed that wealth was the result of Divine favor and, therefore, contact with poor people should be avoided.
  1. No animal could be sacrificed in the temple if the owner had taken it from non-Jewish land or it crossed heathen territory.

Clearly, the followers of Shammai would not be the judges anyone would have to be accountable to. If there were any Pharisees before Pilate demanding the crucifixion of Jesus, it would have been those of this school.

 

02.01.20 (3)

 

[1]. Geikie, The Life and Works of Christ. 1:276.

 

[2]. Fischer, The Gospels in Their Jewish Context. (Lecture on CD/MP3). Week 5, Session 2.

 

[3]. Only the leading Pharisees, but by no means, all the Pharisees opposed Jesus.

 

[4]. New International Version Study Bible note on Leviticus 24:20.

[5]. Falk, Jesus the Pharisee. 54. Harvey Falk reports that a Rabbi Eliezer was married, and in his later years he also married his niece; but his first wife, whom he never divorced, outlived him.  There is a well documented case of first century polygamy in the religious establishment of the Pharisees, but it was not a common practice. See the Jerusalem Talmud, Yevamot 13.2 and Sanhedrin 68a.

 

[6]. Farrar, Life of Christ. 307.

 

[7]. http://www.tyndale.cam.ac.uk/Tyndale/staff/Instone-Brewer/prepub/Sanhedrin%2043a%20censored.pdf. Retrieved May 26, 2013.

 

[8] Cited by Neusner, The Talmud of Babylonia: An American Translation. Vol XVIIIB: Gittin. 93.

 

[9]. Cited by Boker, The Talmud: Selected Writings. 134-35; Bracketed insert by Boker; Definition in parenthesis mine.

 

[10]. Geikie, The Life and Words of Christ. 2:106.

 

[11]. The evening meal was the “chief” meal of the day, usually held in the evening. It was the primary meal during the feasts, such as the Passover meal and marriage feast.

 



02.01.21 Scribes

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02.01.21 Scribes. In the early years of the Old Testament era, scribes were little more than secretaries who functioned as copy writers and performed dictations.[1] But by the beginning of the Inter-Testamental Period, they were generally considered to be scholars of the Mosaic Law (Ezra 7:6; Neh. 8:1), who had excellent writing skills, and by the first century they also functioned as lawyers (Gk. nomodidaskalos), teachers of the Law, accountants, secretaries, journalists, historians, librarians, and teachers.[2] It is believed that most were clerks in a small middle-class society, but some rose to wealthy and powerful prominence.[3] The skill of writing became a monopoly for some families which insured wealth for future generations.[4]

Most people were closely aligned to the Pharisees because this religious group controlled the local synagogues, and the people felt comfortable because they had studied the Written and Oral Laws more than any other religious sect.[5]  Because Pharisees were usually synonymous with the teachers of the Law,[6] it is at times difficult to distinguish them from the scribes[7] although the scribes generally read Scripture in the synagogue. Not all scribes were Pharisees, but all the Pharisees who were members of the Sanhedrin were also scribes (cf. Mt. 23:7-8).[8] Whenever Jesus criticized them,[9] He did so for the following reasons:

  1. They imposed restrictive laws on people which they avoided themselves.
  1. They built beautiful monument tombs for the prophets who were sent by God, but whom they killed.
  1. They kept knowledge of God’s Word essentially for themselves, and made themselves judge and jury of biblical interpretation.
  1. They were incredibly prideful in dress, in greetings, and in public places such as the market and synagogue. The leading Pharisees were so self-righteous, that they often bathed after being in public with the common people.

A scribe was called in Hebrew a talmid, meaning a learned one, or the educated one, but he was also known as a chakham, meaning wise man because he studied all the laws and knew how to apply them to daily life.[10] Scribes were literary professionals who were available for the purpose of writing legal contracts. There were various divisions of scribes.  For example, some scribes functioned as royal secretaries (2 Sam. 8:17) and others were military scribes (Jer. 37:15). It appears that the art of writing was a craft controlled by selected families. The Kenites had families of scribes living at Jabez (1 Chron. 2:55) who appear to have kept a monopoly on their craft.  However, in Jerusalem, scribal schools trained priests and Levites who in turn, trained the people of the Law. Ezra could not have taught the people the Law of Moses if there were no scribal schools in Babylon. Thankfulness should be granted to the Levitical scribes who copied the books of the Old Testament (Deut. 17:18; Jer. 8:8). They wrote various documents that pertained to the maintenance of the temple facility (2 Kg. 12:10; 2 Chron. 34:13).[11]

The famous leader, Ezra, for whom an Old Testament book is named, created this separate body known as scribes or the sopherim.  They copied Scriptures for all occasions, carefully counting every letter to insure accurate transmission of the Sacred Word.[12]  By the first century they became known as lawyers[13] and doctors of the law.[14]  Since nearly every aspect of Jewish life was controlled by religious law, scribes were theological lawyers who were trained in the application of the Torah and the Oral Law. They were often given the honored position of reading the Scriptures in the synagogues and were authoritative consultants who settled disputes.[15]  

Scribes existed in all major religious sects, but most belonged to the Pharisees.[16]  Twice some are referred to as the “scribes of the Pharisees” (Mk. 2:16; Acts 23:9), suggesting that there were scribes of other religious groups. However, as a group, they were technically a trade guild and not a separate religious sect or party.[17] They are best remembered for being extremely detail-oriented concerning religious law, masters of “hair-splitting details” and theological debates. This explains why they were in constant discussions with Jesus, which ultimately led to their humiliation before their favorite audiences.[18] 

 

[1]. 1 Chron. 2:55; 26:6; 27:32; 2 Chron. 34:13; Ezra 4:8-9, 17, 23; Ps. 45:1; Jer. 8:8; Nah. 3:17.

 

[2]. Hillyer, “Scribe, Writing.” 3:477-78.

 

[3]. Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament. 417-18.

 

[4]. Hillyer, “Scribe, Writing.” 3:477-79.

 

[5]. Cited from Moseley, Yeshua: A Guide to the Real Jesus and the Original Church. 92.

 

[6]. Mt. 3:7; 15:1; Mk. 2: 16, 24; Lk. 11:38.

 

[7]. Jeremias, Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus. 59.  

 

[8]. Jeremias, Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus. 236. Being a scribe was a family occupation, handed down from one generation to another. For a list of families of scribes, see I Chronicles 2:55, and for a “company of scribes,” see 1 Maccabees 7:12.  

 

[9]. Other Jewish writers also criticized the leading Pharisees as found in 1 Enoch 102:9-10; Testament of Moses 7:3; Tosefta, Menahot 13:22. See also  Jeremias, Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus. 259, n 42.    

 

[10]. Lang, Know the Words of Jesus. 173.

 

[11]. See also Josephus, Antiquities 12.3.3; cf. 11.5.1.

 

[12]. Freeman, The New Manners and Customs of the Bible. 420.

 

[13]. Mt. 22:35; Lk. 7:30; 11:45; 14:3.

 

[14]. Lk. 2:46; 5:17; Acts 5:34; Freeman, The New Manners and Customs of the Bible. 420-21; Guignebert, The Jewish World in the Time of Jesus. 71.

 

[15]. Freeman, The New Manners and Customs.” 420.

[16]. Metzger, B. New Testament. 48-49.

 

[17]. Hagner, “Scribes.” 4:360-61; Guignebert, The Jewish World in the Time of Jesus. 71.

[18]. Wilson, False Trials of Jesus. 18.

 



02.01.22 Sicarii

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02.01.22 Sicarii. (See also Zealots 02.01.23). This group of freedom fighters was known as the “Sicarii” to the Romans and as the “Zealots” to the Jewish people. Some scholars say that the names are interchangeable, but are listed as two separate groups because other scholars say that the Zealots were a subgroup within the Sicarii organization. Nonetheless, they were dedicated to eliminating Hellenized Jews, overthrowing the Roman Empire to gain independence for Israel, as well as reestablishing the Torah and the orthodox faith in Judaism.

Josephus identified them as a nationalistic group that was known for various terroristic murderous activities.[1] For example, they would walk in a crowded market, surround their victim who was unaware of his situation and, on a given secret signal, pull out short thin daggers and assassinate the victim. In fact, the name Sicarii is the Latin word meaning dagger or short sword.[2] The group would then walk away as if nothing had happened leaving the victim dead on the street. They utterly terrorized Jerusalem.[3]  Luke mentioned a false messiah who led four thousand Sicarii terrorists in a revolt that failed (Acts 21:38).  The last of these hyper-Zealots was destroyed in A.D. 73 with the fall of Masada.[4]

[1]. Josephus, Wars 4.9; Antiquities 20.8.6.

 

[2]. Bruce, New Testament History. 93.

 

[3]. Josephus, Wars 2.13.3.

 

[4]. House, Chronological and Background Charts of the New Testament. 75.

 



02.01.23 Zealots

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02.01.23 Zealots. (See also 02.01.22 Sicarii.) The Zealots were not only freedom fighters, but they were extremely hostile to the Romans, Herodians, and the wealthy aristocratic Jews of Jerusalem – namely the Sadducees.[1] Their name was taken from 1 Kings 19:10, “I have been very zealous for the Lord God Almighty.”[2] They called themselves by the Hebrew term Ganna’im or Aramaic Qan anayya, which in Greek is Zelotai.[3] Obviously the English word is derived from the latter. Their rallying cry was “No king for Israel but God.” They believed it was a sin to pay taxes to a pagan overlord and were determined to fight for their freedom.

While these first century terrorists first became organized and fought against Herod the Great in the years 40-37 B.C., they did not become a political movement until Jesus was about eight or ten years old.  By then the name Zealot identified those who participated in the uprising of A.D. 6 led by Judas of Gamala, the son of Saripheus and Mattathias. This Judas (also known as Judas the Galilean in Acts 5:37) said that Jews were a chosen people of God and, therefore, had no obligation to pay taxes to the Roman government. This is the background of Matthew 22:17 when Jesus was asked, “Is it right to pay taxes to Caesar or not?” While the revolt failed, a Pharisee by the name of Zadok joined Judas and together they formed a loosely knit religious political party which Josephus called the “fourth philosophy.”[4]  They were trained to fight to their death and to recognize no messiah except a messiah of the sword.[5]  From the time the Romans entered the land in 63 B.C. until the destruction of the temple in A.D. 70, there were thirteen revolts[6] and sixty claimants to the title of messiah.[7] Some historians say there were three major revolts that overshadowed dozens of smaller ones. Only one of the Zealots, Menahem ben Hezekiah, claimed to be a descendant of David.[8] However, the greatest of these revolts became known as the “First Revolt” (A.D. 66), which led to the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple.

They originated in the Galilee region while Herod the Great was governor there – before he became king of the entire Jewish region, but became better organized under Judas in A.D. 6.  Josephus said[9] they were the most active freedom-fighting party at the time, convinced that God would help them only if they helped themselves.[10] Their concept of a messiah was one who would lead them to military victory over Roman oppression. The concept of separation of “church and State,” or as would have been said at that time, the separation of synagogue and state, did not exist at that time. Religious faith was the primary motivation behind political movements; as it is with radical Islamic terrorists today. The center of the Jewish resistance movement was in the city of Gamala, located in the mountains east of Galilee, where in A.D. 66 more than five thousand Zealots chose to commit suicide rather than die by the Roman sword.[11]  From this group came a disciple of Jesus by the name of Simon who was referred to later as “Simon the Zealot,” to differentiate him from Simon Peter.[12]

The violent activities of the Sicarii / Zealots initiated the First Revolt.[13] The last of these freedom fighters died at Masada in A.D. 73, but their ideals and dreams of the restoration of a political dynasty equal to that of King David continued.  Six decades later the Jews were at war again, in what has become known as the “Second Revolt” (A.D. 132-135). This revolt is also known as the Simon bar Kokhba Revolt and resulted in the dispersion of all Jews and Christians from Jerusalem by the command of the Roman General Hadrian.

 

[1]. Bruce, New Testament History. 94-95.

 

[2]. Pixner, With Jesus in Jerusalem. 126.

 

[3]. Bruce, New Testament History. 88.

[4]. Josephus, Antiquities 18.1.6 and 20.8.10.

 

[5]. Farrar, The Life of Christ. 442.

 

[6]. See Appendix 25 for a listing of false prophets who had messianic expectations and for a partial listing of revolts and social disturbances from 63 B.C. to A.D. 70.

 

[7]. Geikie, The Life and Works of Christ. 2:114.

 

[8]. Jerusalem Talmud, Berakhoth 2.4, 5a.18. Menahem ben Hezekiah was a major leader in the revolt of A.D. 66 (Josephus, Wars 2.17.8). For more than a hundred years the Hezekiah family was involved in various revolts, and mutinies.  This has given credibility to some that they were of royal lineage as they claimed.

 

[9]. Josephus, Antiquities 18.1.6 (23-25).

 

[10]. Golub, In the Days. 274.

 

[11]. Pixner, With Jesus in Jerusalem. 126.

 

[12]. Pixner, With Jesus in Jerusalem. 126.

 

[13]. For more information on the Zealot movement, see Josephus, Wars 2.4.1 and 4.4.1.

 



02.02 Biblical And Extra-Biblical Writings

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Unit 02

Cultural Background Studies

 

Chapter 02

Biblical And Extra-Biblical Writings

 

 02.02.00.A. JESUS HEALS THE LEPER (5)

 02.02.00.A. JESUS HEALS THE LEPER. Artist unknown. A ninth century Pen-and-ink drawing depicts a leper with spots coming to Jesus for a healing. Vatican Files.



02.02.01 Introduction

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02.02.01 Introduction. This study contains dozens of quotations from ancient extra-biblical sources. The importance of these writings lies in the fact that they aid in the understanding of the problems of daily first century life, including theological discussions, major cultural, historical events, and the reaction of rulers and people to various problems. A brief description of each source is given so the reader will understand why some extra-biblical writings are more reliable and significant than others. For example, books such as the Didache (a first century church document) and Mishnah (the written version of the Oral Law) are important while other works, such as the Gnostic writings, hold almost no historical value and are theologically worthless and possibly deceptive.

As stated previously, for the purpose of this study, the ideal writer of yesteryear quoted herein was one who lived in the land of Jesus and at the time of Jesus. The further in time and geographical distance an ancient writer was from the life of Christ, the more suspect his manuscript becomes.  That does not negate it – but it raises the bar for discerning critique. Scholars universally discount writings after the sixth or seventh centuries. There are hundreds of old manuscripts in the possession of universities and museums pretending to provide additional detail to the life and ministry of Jesus, and nearly all of them are fanciful stories that should never have been written.[1]

Video Insert    >

02.02.01.V The Significance of Inter-Testamental Writings. Dr. Douglas Finkbeiner summarizes seven important classifications of Inter-Testamental writings and their contributions to understanding first century Jewish life. (45:37)


 

[1]. Two examples are: 1) Ron Charles, who has gathered scores of fanciful legends and myths, mostly written between the sixth and sixteenth centuries, that pertain to the life of Christ in his book titled, The Search: A Historian’s Search for Historical Jesus. (Self-Published, 2007). 2) Nicholas Notovich, whose book,  The Unknown Life of Jesus Christ. Trans. (Virchand R. Gandhi, Dover Pub.) is a so-called historical account of when Jesus went to Asia to study between the ages 13 and 29.

 



02.02.02 Ante-Nicene Fathers

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02.02.02 Ante-Nicene Fathers. The Ante-Nicene Fathers are those church leaders who were influential prior to the Church Council of Nicea in the year 325, but after the Apostolic Fathers who were personally taught by the apostles.  The ante-Nicene Fathers discussed a wide variety of theological and church issues. Since they lived within three centuries of Jesus, they present valuable insight into the cultural and background setting, as well as early interpretations of Scripture.



02.02.03 Apocrypha

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02.02.03 Apocrypha. The Apocrypha[1] is a collection of about fourteen books[2] written, for the most part, during the Inter-Testamental Period in the Holy Land.[3]  However, It was the intent of the authors to write a message to an inner circle of the faithful, which could not be understood by outsiders. Hence the Greek name apokryphos, meaning “hidden” or “concealed.”[4]  The Roman Catholic[5] and Eastern Orthodox Churches have accepted them as inspired Scriptures.[6]  Protestants, however, recognized these books only for the historical values, as they believe these add nothing of theological value to the canonical Scripture.[7] They enhance the understanding of the Greco-Roman-Jewish atmosphere and are a witness to the faith of the Jewish people living in the second century B.C. Hence, these provide essential historical background for understanding the Judaism of Jesus’ day and the Jewish matrix of early Christianity.[8]  Each book must be evaluated for its worth and intended use in a particular study. For example, the book of Judith is essentially a book of fables common in the days of Jesus, whereas 1 and 2 Maccabees are both well-written, highly respected contemporaneous historical accounts of the second century B.C.

Apocalyptic literature appears in both the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha.  The very nature of the word “apocalyptic” has the meaning of pending divine judgment and an end of the world.[9]  These authors were convinced of the following:

  1. They were living in the proverbial end times,
  2. The Messiah would soon come,
  3. The age of humanity was quickly coming to a close,
  4. The events they witnessed in their day were signs of the struggles between God and the evil one, and
  5. In a final armed conflict God would win and righteous people would likewise be brought into victory with God.
  6. Then Satan and all Gentiles would be destroyed along with non-observant Jews.[10]

Two biblical books that are outstanding examples of apocalyptic literature are Daniel and the Revelation.[11]  Like the Pseudepigrapha (described below), some Apocrypha books were written in part to justify portions of Scripture that were embarrassing to the Jews. Since they had elevated their patriarchs to near deity level, they could not accept the fact that they were men who had sinned and were extended forgiveness by the grace of God. This is evidence of the theological chaos that existed in the first centuries B.C. and A.D.  Jerome made this comment about these books in his Letter to Laeta.  

They are not written by those to whom they were ascribed … many faulty elements have been introduced into them, and  …  it requires infinite discretion to look for gold in the midst of dirt.

Jerome, Letter to Laeta     

 

A number of older Bible manuscripts, such as the Sinaitic, Vatican, and Alexandrian contain the Apocrypha. The oldest Syriac version does not have it but newer ones do.[12]  It was first printed in the English language in 1535 as part of the Coverdale Bible where it was placed between the Old and New Testaments. It was often a part of the Protestant Bible, but solely for its historical value until 1827.[13]  By the end of the 1800s, all Protestant Bibles eliminated the Apocrypha while the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Bibles continue to include it.

Two of the books within the Apocrypha category are 1 and 2 Maccabees. Some scholars have questioned the reliability of these works, until the Heliodorus Stele was discovered. The inscribed stone preserves part of a letter of King Seleucus IV Philopator (218-175 B.C.) that was written to a Seleucid official, Heliodorus, who is believed to have been the assassin of the king. The account provides the historical context for the royal official Heliodorus named in the miraculous story in 2 Maccabees, chapter 3. The communication was engraved in the stone stele for public display.  In it the king discusses the proper care of temples in his domain, specifically Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, which included Judaea.[14] The king’s proclamation represents the beginning of royal policy of religious exploitation and interference that would lead to the Maccabean Revolt a decade later.


02.02.03.A. THE HELIODORUS STELE. (2)02.02.03.B HELIODORUS STELE.

 

02.02.03.A. THE HELIODORUS STELE.  LEFT: This stele, dated to 178 B.C., is shown with the missing portions in place, and RIGHT: the portions discovered in 2005 and 2006. It illustrates the background of 2 Maccabees and demonstrates that the book is an authentic and independent information source on this historical period. The inscription marks the beginning of the Greek-Seleucid intervention of Jewish life that eventually led to the Maccabean Revolt in 167 B.C. Heliodorus was ordered by King Seleucus IV (reigned 189-175 B.C.) to remove the treasures from the Jewish temple. The king called for the appointment of overseers in various provinces, including Judea.

Of course the historical accuracy of 1 and 2 Maccabees does not imply that other books within this category have the same historical accuracy. Nonetheless, when researching cultural norms, it is exciting to uncover historical accuracy as well.

 

02.02.03.Q1 Did Jesus Quote the Apocrypha (Mt. 5:34-35; 7:12)? 

Some critics say that Jesus quoted or referred to the Apocrypha or Pseudepigrapha.[15]  They imply that He borrowed ideas from those writers, and therefore, His teaching was not of divine inspiration. The question is to explain how some of these books, written years before His birth, have similarities to what He taught.

What Jesus taught was based solidly upon the Old Testament and many themes were also taught by rabbis in the Inter-Testamental Period, especially with the advent of Hellenism. Therefore, some topics naturally are found in the works of many orthodox Jewish rabbis, including Jesus.

Furthermore, it must be realized that even in pagan communities there were some social principles that were godly. For example, the Chinese sage Confucius presented the Golden Rule[16] in the negative form, as did the Jewish sage Tobit long before Jesus arrived in Bethlehem.  This most certainly does not mean that Jesus derived His opinions from either source, but it does indicate that these men were aware, to some degree, of divine principles.  The fact that there is a similarity does not mean Jesus endorsed them or relied on them.  He was, and is, God.  His Words have existed throughout all eternity past.

Two examples below supposedly “prove” that Jesus depended upon the Apocrypha in His teaching:[17]

Mt. 5:34-35 But I tell you, don’t take an oath at all: either by heaven, because it is God’s throne; 35 or by the earth, because it is His footstool; or by Jerusalem, because it is the city of the great King.

This is parallel to:

Ben Sirach 23:9 Do not accustom your mouth to oaths, nor habitually utter the name of the Holy One.

 

Mt. 7:12 Therefore, whatever you want others to do for you, do also the same for them—this is the Law and the Prophets.

This is parallel to, but in reverse of:

Tobit 4:15 And what you hate, do not do to anyone.

 

These examples in Ben Sirach and Tobit are similar to the words of Jesus because He and other rabbis had a similar sense of righteousness based upon the Hebrew Bible. It should not surprise the modern student that righteous Jews thought very much like Jesus.

Finally, as a word of warning, it should be noted that many myths and legends throughout the centuries are attributed to extra-biblical books. Creative writers and painters have attempted to enhance the holiness and miracles of Jesus. Several examples are as follows:

  1. Italian artists show that dragons bowed down to Jesus
  1. Lions and leopards adored Him
  1. Roses of Jericho blossomed wherever He walked.
  1. Some writers have said that when the Holy Family entered Egypt, all the idols fell off their pedestals and that many lepers were healed when the family went by.

Biblical myths were created throughout history, but increased significantly in Europe during the Middle Ages. There is hardly a museum or library in Europe that does not have one or two so-called “true stories” of the Bible hidden somewhere in its archives that have recently been promoted as a recently discovered insight.[18] They all point to the fulfillment of the prophetic words of Jesus in His Olivet Discourse (Mt. 24), when He warned that false teachers would arise.

The redeeming quality of these writings is that, by contrast, they are astonishing proof that the biblical gospels were produced by authors who were guided by the Holy Spirit.  It is obvious that no creative mind can enhance the Sacred Script without degrading or distorting it. While creative writers and painters attempted to honor Jesus, their fanciful stories tend to dishonor and misinterpret Him.

 

[1]. See Fritsch, “Apocrypha.” 1:161-66; Davies, “Apocrypha.” 1:161-65; Harrison, R. “Apocrypha.” 1:205-10; Charlesworth, The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Vol. 1 and 2; Metzger, B. ed., The Apocrypha of the Old Testament: Revised Standard Version.

[2]. The Apocrypha consists of the following books: (1) I Esdras, a/k/a 3rd Ezra, (2) II Esdras, a/k/a 4th Ezra; (3) Tobit; (4) Judith; (5) Additions to the Book of Esther; (6) The ; (7) Ecclesiasticus, a/k/a The Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach, or simply as Sirach; (8) Baruch, including the Letter of Jeremiah; (9) The Prayer of Azaraih and the Song of the Three Young Men; (10) Susanna; (11) Bel and the Dragon; (12) The Prayer of Manasseh; (13) 1 Maccabees and (14) 2 Maccabees. Unfortunately, some authors ascribe other books to this category. However, not all churches recognize the same books within this classification.  See 02.02.01.V.

[3]. Golub, In the Days. 240-41.

 

[4]. Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah. 23.

[5]. The Roman Catholic Church, as late as 1546, embraced the Apocrypha as Scripture at the Council of Trent.

 

[6]. Davies, “Apocrypha.” 1:161-65; Bright, History of Israel. 455.

[7]. Fischer, The Gospels in Their Jewish Context. (Lecture on CD/MP3). Week 6, Session 1.

 

[8]. Foster and King, Binding and Loosening. 26.

[9]. Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah. 16, 23, 779.

 

[10]. Bright, A History of Israel. 454-56.

 

[11]. The book of Daniel was written by the prophet of the same name, after he and many others were taken captive into Babylon in 605 B.C. However, critics maintain that since it is apocalyptic and prophetic in nature, it must have been written after 170 B.C. as a historical description of the horrors unleashed by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The Revelation was written in A.D. 95 by John.

 

[12]. Heysham, The Birth of the Bible. 31.

[13]. Davies, “Apocrypha.” 1:163; Heysham, The Birth of the Bible. 9-11.

[14]. Resig, Dorothy D. “Volunteers and Missing Pieces to Looted Inscription.” 64-67.

 

[15] Jesus is not the only One who quoted or made reference to non-biblical sources. For further study in apologetics, see http://www.ask.com/wiki/Assumption_of_Moses?o=2800&qsrc=999&ad=doubleDown&an=apn&ap=ask.com. See also http://www.apologeticspress.org/apcontent.aspx?category=13&article=1179 Retrieved April 5, 2015.

 

[16]. Horne, Jesus: The Master Teacher. 102.

 

[17]. Quotations from the Apocrypha found in the Bible: The New Revised Standard Version with Apocrypha.

[18]. Two examples are: 1) Ron Charles, who has gathered scores of fanciful legends and myths, mostly written between the sixth and sixteenth centuries, that pertain to the life of Christ in his book titled, The Search: A Historian’s Search for Historical Jesus. (Self-Published, 2007). 2) Nicholas Notovich, whose book,  The Unknown Life of Jesus Christ. Trans. (Virchand R. Gandhi, Dover Pub.) is a so-called historical account of when Jesus went to Asia to study between the ages 13 and 29.

 



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